College Essay Essay Example for Free

College Essay EssayEveryone exits to many different communities and/or groups defined by (among other things) shared geography, religion, ethnicity, income, cuisine, interest, race, ideology, or intellectual heritage. Choose one of the communities to which you belong, and describe that community and your place within it. Black. That is the most dominate trait about me. It is the eldest thing people notice when they see me. I can change my hair or my clothes, but I will always be black. in that respect are plenty of people who also fit into this category with me the notorious Black Community. In a word, the black community is diverse.There are the unimaginative black people. The people you hear about on the news. Those who steal, shoot, sell drugs, have baby mama drama, and use the N-word in every other sentence. However, there is another side to this coin. This is where I come in. My role in this community along with the other portion of the black community who are in the akin subset as me is penetrating this negative light that is beaming down on all of us. I have neer held a gun. I have never stolen anything. I have never laid a hand on any drug that wasnt prescribed to me or didnt have gelid and flu in the title.I go intot have any kids and I dont plan on having any anytime soon, and I dont feel comfortable saying the N-word when Im by myself, let alone when Im around other people. All in all, my role in the black community is to prove to everyone else that that one perception does not apply to everyone. The black community is one of many communities that I belong to. This community as a whole is looked down upon, for understandable reasons. However, there are exceptions like me, who demonstrate without a doubt that one general manifestation does not describe us all. Therefore, I describe the black community as diverse.

Incidence of Finger Defects: Gender Comparison

Incidence of Finger Defects Gender ComparisonAbstractThe theater of operations was make to see the incidence of the figure injury and to climb a nomenclature system with the help of questionnaire, clinical examination, and radiographs of the finger demerits obtained in both standard planes.The results of this correction demonstrate that finger injuries were common staminates than females and the defect was more common in the good hands and in middle fingers. Amputation was more common at the train of distal phalanges.Keywords Finger injuries, machinery, car accident1. IntroductionFingers ar amongst the most mobile and active parts of the body. Fingers ar injured daily activities like working, eat, playing and other activities1. The congenital anomalies involving finger or the finger injury creates anxious of bothers as substantially as long term functional disability and esthetical 1,2.It is important to understand the incidence and causes of finger injuries. This w ill help the clinician for the diagnosing and treatment planning.The amount of tissue remaining, condition of the bone and the number of fingers involved causa to be con billetred when choosing suit adapted treatment option 3. Several microsurgical techniques such as toe-foot-transfer, lengthening procedure and the use of osteo-cutaneous flap may offer opportunities to reconstruct the unconnected or missing phalanges 4. The use of bone-anchored implant retained silicone finger prosthesis represents an alternative technique.Bone anchoring method is used since 1994 for the rehabilitation of finger defects 5.The aim of this field of force is to study the incidence of the finger defect in Golden Jubilee Medical Center, Mahidol University from 2012 to 2014 by developing a nomenclature system developed by maxillofacial Prosthetic and Orthopedic Department with the help of history, clinical examination, and radiographs of the remaining stump of the finger and digit.2. MethodsThis retro spective study of the tolerants record of the finger defect between 2012 to 2014 at the Golden Jubilee Medical Center. This study involved total 10 patients and 16 treated fingers.The study protocol was approved by the Committee in University Hospital. The demographic data collected were include the sex, causes of the defect, involved hand, finger and digital bone as shown in Table 1 and 2. The radiographs of the finger defects were obtained in two standard planes in each patient (Figure 1). The mode of treatments received was withal recorded.The Mahidol University MUsystem consists of 1 alphabetic and 2 numeric symbols. Each hand is composed of carpel, metacarpal and the digits with Phalanges. The alphabetic symbol indicates the right R or left L side. The 5 digits in each hand (Thumb, Index, Middle, Ring and Little finger) are denoted by the numbers as elaborated in Table 3. Each digit has 3 bones i.e. proximal, middle and distal army except the thumb which is comprised of moreo ver proximal and distal phalanx. The remaining of each phalanx bone in each digit is further indicated with the numerical symbols (Table 4). During the evaluation of the cases, the partial remaining of the phalanx bone were also observed. These incomplete or partial remaining of phalanx bone is denoted by the alphabet I.3. ResultsThis study showed the incidence of finger defect was greater in male (60%) and the common acquired causes of the finger defect were machinery (44.44%), car accident (11.11%), explosion (11.11%), assault (11.11%), others (22.22%) as shown in the Table 3.The finger defect was present more on right side (70%) and the involved fingers were as thumb (16.66%), index finger (22.22%), middle finger (27.77%), ring finger (22.22%), picayune finger (11.11%) as shown in the Table 4. The involved digit were as distal phalange (35.29%), distal and middle (23.35%), distal, middle and proximal (29.41%), and, distal and proximal (11.17%). The diagnosis according to the MU system was described in the Table 4.4. DiscussionIn this study, the lavishlyer incidence of finger defect in male may be related to the occupation and the activities. Normally, right hand side is dominant during function and work therefore, the defect was observed more on right hand side of males. In female patients, the mishaps occurred during domestic activities for instance cutting and chopping action therefore, left hand side was mostly affected.The type of the finger defect (involved finger, number and level of amputations) results in the compromise in the specific type of the function. The common functions of the fingers are as follows thumb is used for writing, grasping, holdingindex finger is used for imperativeness and grasping middle fingers isused for writing, grasping and holding compared to ring and little finger. Regarding the impact on function, the effect from the distal amputation are minimal than the proximal levels. This also affects the patients motivation towa rds restoration.The cause of the finger defect is also related with the resultant anatomy of the defect. The finger defect that results from sharp object or switch off are not much ill-shapen compared to the defects due to an accident and outside activities. The accident and outside activities often results is crushing of the finger bone and results in deformed remaining stump which is difficult to restore.Regarding the treatment of finger defect, mostly, the surgical rehabilitation doesnt result the best esthetic and causes the disability in the donor set 6, therefore, prosthetic rehabilitation is preferred. The vacuum or implant retained are two options for the prosthetic rehabilitation which is decided depending upon the level of amputation, extent of the defect and structures bear on on the injured finger or hand. Treatment of the finger defect depends on the remaining stump of the amputated finger which should be minimally 1.5 cm in length for the conventional friction fit silicone prostheses 7.The shorter stumps may cause the problem of instability of the prostheses. Therefore, the role of implant becomes important which also help whatsoever level of tactile sensation. The bore of the life after the finger prosthesis is increased.Regarding the surgical techniques, one- act technique for the implant placement in implant retained finger prosthesis is safe, reliable and efficient in metacarpal and phalangeal bone if primary stability is optimal 8.Finite Element Analysis (FEA) have been used to study the effects of various shapes of dental implants on distribution of strivinges generated in the surrounding bone and to determine an optimal thread shape for discontinue stress distribution. The non-uniform stress pattern at bone and might induce biomechanical overloading failures in implant and bone 9, 10.The limitation of the current study is the less number of the patients. This study just now included the patients who refused for the surgical rehabi litation and referred for the prosthetic rehabilitation after the surgical amputation.5. ConclusionFinger injuries were common males than females and the defect was more common in the right hands and in middle fingers. Amputation was more common at the level of distal phalanges. Prosthetic replacement using finger prosthesis helped to improve the quality of the life of the patients.Conflict of InterestsThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this musical composition. consume Disorders in Elite Athletes preponderance and RisksEating Disorders in Elite Athletes Prevalence and RisksBeing an elect level athlete, an immense amount of pressure is placed on athletes to perform at their very best, often times leaving them keen to achieve the top physical fitness that they chiffonier reach. This level of physical fitness and shiftness has been not solo exaggerated in sports, but also in modern media that is associated with the industry t hat is todays sports. Over the years, this has postulate to take in roughnesss in those not only at an elite level, but in all sports. Disordered take in has substantial and devastating effects on the physical body, although it stems from a mental illness. Not only is the preponderance of consume ailments in high-level female athletes apparent, but also the associated put on the lines with the discipline of the unhinge are detrimental to performance. It is important to note the susceptibility of athletes to acquire the eating disorder, in summing up to taking a closer look at the variability of the development in exercising heaviness dependent sports that focus on tipness versus non-weight dependent sports (Wells, 2015). In addition, once it has been understood how disordered eating arises, it is key to look into the barroom of the potential development of eating disorders in the elite level of athletics. The purpose of this paper is to look at the prevalence of eati ng disorders in athletes compared to their non-athlete counterparts, the risk factor of developing the disorder in a lean vs. non-lean sport, as well as the physiological harm an eating disorder can cause and ways to prevent the development of one. The compiled look at these ideas is important in helping to better the overall mental health of the athletes and recognize where these behaviors stem from, to hopefully lower the frequency in the upcoming years.Eating disorders in the athletic population, more specifically the female athletic population, are obtaining increasing attention. (Brownell, et al., 1992) However, the exact causes of eating disorders are not known, and look to be a combination of psychological, biological and social factors. In studies, there have been claims that female athletes look to be more vulnerable to eating disorders, more specifically to Anorexia Nervosa, Anorexia Athletica and Bulimia Nervosa than those females in the general population. (Sundgot-Borge n, 1996) Amongst the rationale proposed for the high occurrence of both subclinical and clinical eating disorders among female athletes includes the attraction-to-sport hypothesis (Thompson et al., 1993), exercise induced anorexia nervosa (Epling and Pierce, 1988), dieting and body weight cycling (Brownell et al., 1992), personality factors (Yates, 1989), aboriginal start of sport-specific training (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994), traumatic events (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994), and the impact of coaches as well as their strength trainers (Rosen and Hough, 1988).In a study conducted in Norway, the clinical and subclinical eating disorders in young, modern rhythmic gymnasts on the national team were assessed. The subjects of the study included 12 members of the national team, ranging in ages from thirteen to twenty years old, and they were by the piece paired with nonathletic control subjects. All of the subjects took part in a structured clinical interview for eating disorders, as well as medical examinations and dietary analysis. The results showed that two of the participants met the criteria for anorexia nervosa, while two others met the requirements for anorexia athletica. Every single one of the gymnasts were dieting at some point during the study, although they were already extremely lean. In relation to their non-athletic counterparts, the athletes scored significantly higher than their age-matched control when assessed for the eating disorder inventory. (Sundgot-Borgen, 1996)Furthermore, Beals and Monroe in Arizona suggest that the prevalence of eating disorders, as well as the excessive concerns regarding body weight in female athletes, are increasing constantly. In addition to the pressures placed upon female athletes to improve their performances as well as their physiques, the general sociocultural prerequisite thrust upon women to be thin frequently results in un credibly body weight and size goals. (Beals and Monroe, 1994).Looking at the associated risk of de veloping an eating disorder as an athlete, Folscher and her peers observed that worldwide female participation in endurance events might place the athletes at risk for the female athlete triad. In the study, only about 7.5% of the female marathoners even knew about the triads existence, despite the fact that 44.1% of the athletes were high risk for developing the triad. Around one-third of the participants showed disordered eating behaviors with almost half reported restrictive eating behaviors. The study found that the athletes were more likely to experience disordered eating when participating in an elite event, when compared to those that were not. (Folscher et al., 2015)In addition, in the athletic training and health centers at National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I, II, and III institutions, studies were conducted comparing athletes to non-athletes using questionnaires. In contrast to the other studies, the findings were generally positive, indicating that female student athletes have high levels of self-concept, and are at low risk to develop eating disorders. However, even with these further results, it does not mean that all concerns can be overlooked, seeing as though there are still athletes who are at risk to develop an eating disorder (McLester, 2014).Continuing on the topic of prevalence, in a study comparing disordered eating behaviors in undergraduate female collegial athletes and non-athletes, Reinking and Alexander found that female athletes did not exhibit more disordered eating symptoms in general, however, the data suggested that lean-sport athletes were more susceptible to developing an eating disorder than their non-lean sport counterparts. (Reinking, 2005).Overall, the prevalence of eating disorders in female athletes at an elite level is gaining more attention amongst competitors. A combination of psychological, social factors and biological predispositions lead to the eventual development of disordered eating among the h igh-level female athletic population, and in more cases than not, elite athletes display an increased risk for the development of eating disorders than their non-athletic colleagues, in addition to being at risk for having a higher prevalence of eating disordered by close to 14 to 19% compared to their male counterparts (Anderson, 2012). chromosomal mutations that emphasize body composition (also known as lean sports), are frequently associated with driving women towards disordered eating habits in order to reach an elite athlete body type. (Beals, 2004) In a study conducted by Wells et al., eighty-three varsity female athletes from eight separate Campbell University sports teams were observed, and were separated establish on lean and non-lean sports. The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference between lean and non-lean sports, indicating that lean sports exhibit a higher risk for developing an eating disorder when compared to athletes participating in n on-lean sports. In addition, it appears that a likely influence of disordered eating in these female athletes emerge from external social influences (Wells, 2015). Likewise, in a 2016 study derived from German Young Olympic Athletes (GOAL), the searchers objectively looked at the factors regarding eating disorder pathology in female youth athletes, as there are scarce studies that focus on the elite adolescents. During this stage in their life, they are highly vulnerable developmentally and are affected not only by general but sport-specific risk factors as well. The results concluded that those who were at high risk for developing a disorder comprised of athletes in weight dependent sports (lean sports), in addition to athletes who are high on negative affectivity, female athletes in general, and male athletes who participate in endurance, technical or power sports. These athletes that competed in lean sports showed signs of compensatory behaviors to influence their body weight, i n addition to reporting increased levels of depression and anxiety than their athlete counterparts without eating disorder pathology. (Giel, et al., 2016)Risk factors are key in dread the concept of the susceptibility of groups of athletes in the development of the disorder, as well as certain trigger factors that could be responsible for precipitating the exacerbation or onset of disordered eating. In a study conducted by Sundgot-Borgen, elite female athletes were assessed to account risk and trigger factors for anorexia athletica, anorexia nervosa, and bulimia nervosa. Of the athletes studies, the prevalence of the clinical and subclinical pathologies were significantly higher in sports that emphasized leanness, or a specific weight, than in those sports where body control is considered less important. (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994)Further, athletes that perform at higher levels of athletic competition show increased levels of pathological clinical and subclinical eating disorders. As a population as a whole that have been determine for the development of disordered eating, identifying subgroups within of who is more likely to develop the malady is key in finding a way to prevent it in the future. Generally, athletes in sports that emphasize lean physique, as well as weight restrictions in the sport are more vulnerable to progress into an eating disorder than those athletes that do not compete in those types of sports, as well as non-athlete controls (Picard, 1999). Eating disorders can be devastating not only psychologically, but physiologically as well. The complications stem from three main mechanisms undereating, purging, and low body weight. Long-term eating disorders reduce the quality of muscular fitness, leading to a constant state of weariness and weakness that is extremely difficult to recover from. In addition to the physical manifestations, the psychosocial functioning of athletes is severely under functioning as well. The overvaluation of shape, we ight and eating control, and using them as such to determine ones self-worth are regarded as the main psychopathology of eating disorders. Interpersonal functioning is impaired, and mood and science are negatively affected, in severe cases detrimentally influencing not only schooling but physical performance of the athlete as well. (El Ghoch, 2013)Recognition that noise programs and preventative methods are necessary have been apparent for quite some time now, allowing research to shift towards suggestions in cake methods. Looking at some(prenominal) health educational intervention methods for collegiate female athletes, Abood and Black found four that worked as ways to aid in prevention. Intervening in the athletes understanding of self-esteem, and exploring the factors that affect self-esteem, including body image, positive and negative self-talk, realistic and unrealistic expectations, as well as feedback from peers, was a key way in which to alter the trail of the developm ent of the disorder. Stress management to counteract the anxiety derived from the disorder was effective at reframing the mindset, using methods such as diaphragmatic breathing, progressive relaxation and visualization as coping methods. Education on nutrition was further established as a preventative measure, where caloric needs of the female athlete were discussed with them, as well as nutrition beliefs and myths, and the athletes were given guidelines for healthy approaches to weight management. Finally, goal setting education as a method to reduce anxiety of body image distortions was established through and through short and long term goals, synchronization of those goals with a coach and the evaluation of those goals with others. An education focus on the importance of health or else of attention to the harmful effects of pathogenic weight loss appear to be a more productive method of producing positive changes. Participating in educational interventions in athletes who are a t risk or have already developed the disorder seems to protect from further decline in self-esteem, and reduces the athletes drive for thinness (Abood, 2000).Prevention of eating disorders focuses on thwarting the emergence of the illness or disorder, typically by identifying the correlations and risk factors that may contribute to the development of the affliction. The American Academy of Pediatrics, the International Olympic Committee Medical Commission, and the American College of Sports Medicine have recommended national and international sports federations to implement policies to eliminate harmful weight-loss practices (Coelho, 2014). Primary prevention focuses on education and instruction to prevent extreme dieting and the onset of the eating disorder. Furthermore, protecting athletes from factors that can predispose them to the development of the disorder should begin as proto(prenominal) as 9-11 years of age (Sundgot-Borgen, 1993). Numerous studies have shown that various intervention methods have positive results. These interventional programs addressed not only the de-stigmatization of eating disorders through discussion, but also the harmful effects of pathogenic weight loss, and healthy nutritional practices to implement for sufficient energy availability (Coelho, 2014).Furthermore, because of the sport specific correlations and risk factors, prevention programs should be shaped to each individual type of sport, as well as various athlete groups (more specifically adolescents, due to their developmental stage and susceptibility) (Coelho, 2014). Not only should the athletes themselves be informed, but also coaches and health professionals that directly interact with the athlete should be better educated. In response to the epidemic that are eating disorders, the National Athletic Trainers Association (NATA) released a position statement on the prevention of eating disorders in athletes, which recommended athletic trainers as well as health profess ionals to be able to first detect signs of disordered eating, including clinical features and behavioral warning signs, and identify predisposing risk factors. Some of the psychological and behavioral characteristics that are identified in athletes with eating disorders are dieting which is unnecessary, ritualistic eating patters, social secession, depression, compulsiveness, etc. These signs can be apparent or not, but having a professional who can recognize these symptoms is key in the prevention of further development. In addition, mandatory educational programs for all involved in athletics should be implemented annually, describing the risks associated with eating disorders. (Bonci, et al., 2008)An example of an educational program that had high success rate was implemented in a high-risk school setting in 1999. The world-class residential ballet school housed both female and male students aged 10-18, and employed a prevention program that followed the paradigm of health promo ting schools as outline by the World Health Organization, involving systemic changes in addition to direct interventions with students. The study used various measures to compare between the baseline age bracket and later ones, which revealed significant reductions in disordered eating patterns and attitudes about body shape and eating (Piran, 1999).Being able to recognize the signs and then preventing the eating disorder from developing is key in the day-to-day lives of athletes who participate at a high-level, or anticipate to compete at an elite status eventually. Understanding the sobering physiological harm disordered eating can lead to is an important aspect of prevention, as well as establishing social circumstances and high-risk situations that can lead to an eating disorder. Education is one of the most profound ways to prevent the development of eating disorders, and should be implemented across the board at any high-level athletic institution. Future Research Directions andImplications for PracticeUnderstanding what the prevalence, and the associated risks are with eating disorders can be much implicated across the board. Acknowledging the problem that modern athletics face with the prevalence of eating disorders, coaches are just one group of people that need to be more aware of the compel demands they place on athletes. Using cooperative methods, coaches are able to provide practical solutions to the issues of overtraining and under eating, as well as be able to identify signs of eating disorders earlier (Thompson, 1993). In the clinical setting, more specifically in collegiate athletics by health professionals, understanding the signs and symptoms, as well as being able to identify the high-risk athletes who are more susceptible to developing an eating disorder based on the sport they participate in (Giel, 2016). This has even been exemplified through the NATA position statement, where understanding all aspects of eating disorder emergence in a thletes has lead to increased prevention, as well as interception of those who were on the track to developing an eating disorder based on their participation in elite athletics (Bonci, et al., 2008).In addition to coaches and health professionals, athletes themselves being able to recognize the unhealthy behaviors and coping tactics in regards to their own idea of body and self, as well as understanding what is expected of them in equipment casualty of aesthetic and performance, is essential in the prevention and decrease of eating disorder prevalence across the board. Being able to apply the knowledge from educational programs, and practically implicating not only those but also the identifying risk factors are essential in the future decrease of eating disorders (Sundgot-Borgen, 1994).An interesting area for future researchwould be to explore the inclusion of individualized health-enhancing physicalactivity programs in patients that have been diagnosed with eating disorders,and how that would play into the athletes return to participation of theircompetitive sport, following withdrawal due to the illness. Being able to healthilycontrol an athletes relationship between sport and mind is essential to thesafe return to participation, and denoting a positive relationship between thephysical activity programs for patients recovering from eating disorders wouldbe essential. This area of study has just been funded by the NIH, and will mostlikely be published within the next couple of years.Further research could also be utilisein the development of the disorder in pre- pubescent versus pubescent versuspost-pubescent athletes, and compare how the susceptibility in the developmentof the disorder changes based on age, more specifically athletes who begincompeting at an elite level at an early age. As depicted in the study by Giel,there is a lack of knowledge on adolescent athletes and how age plays a role inthe development of eating disorders at an elite level, and it would be helpfulfor not only health professionals, but also coaches and athletes to understandhow age plays a factor. (Giel, 2016)In addition, a longitudinal controlled-large scale intervention study would be extremely helpful in identifying not only prevalence, but also risk factors and prevention methods. This study would be most beneficial if it was conducted based on varying sports, but also sex specific, as well as denoted based on age groups. ConclusionOverall, eating disorders are a common and very serious health problem. As advanced as we have become as a nation, the athletic world should be better equipped for not only preventing the emergence of these problems, but also identifying the prevalence among athletes as well as what sport specific factors may lead to its manifestation. The prevalence of eating disorders are found to be higher in elite level female athletes than in their non-athletic peers, or in the general population (Reinking, 2005). Even amongst athletes, the prevalence of eating disorders varies based on the specific sport that is competed in, with weight focused or lean sport competitors having an increased risk of developing a disorder, whether it be clinical or subclinical (Picard, 1999). Further, the implementations of programs that are focused on not only the education of athletes but health professionals as well have been shown to decrease the prevalence of eating disorders (Coelho, 2014). Using this knowledge about eating disorders, the information should be applied throughout everyday participation in athletics, not matter what level it is at. However, there is still a need to learn more about the development of the disorder age-wise, as well as the enactment of a long term study focusing on all aspects of the eating disorder development, based on specific sports and age ranges. The take home message of this paper is that athletes, coaches, and health professionals alike should be better educated at understanding the preval ence of eating disorders in athletes compared to their non-athletic counterparts, in addition to coping with the risks that stem from participating in a lean sport, while at the same time knowing how to solve the problem if it were to arise. ReferencesAbood, DA. (2000) Health education preventionfor eating disorders among college female athletes. American ledger of Health Behavior.24(3)209.http//inside.org/10.5993/AJHB.24.3.6AndersonC, Petrie TA. (2012) Prevalence of disordered eating and pathogenic weightcontrol behaviors among NCAA division in femalecollegiate gymnasts and swimmers. Res QExerc Sport 83(1) 120-124, Beals, K. A., &Manore, M. M. (1994). The Prevalence and Consequences of Subclinical Eating Disorders in Female Athletes.InternationalJournal of Sport Nutrition,4(2), 175-195. inside10.1123/ijsn.4.2.175BealsKA. (2004) Disordered Eating Among Athletes A Comprehensive Guide for Health Professionals Human Kinetics.Bonci, C. M., Bonci,L. J., Granger, L. R., Johnson, C. L., Malina, R. M., Milne, L. W., . . . Vanderbunt, E. M. (2008). National AthleticTrainers Association Position Statement Preventing, Detecting, and Managing DisorderedEating in Athletes.Journal of Athletic Training,43(1), 80-108. doi10.4085/1062-6050-43.1.80Brownell,K.D., J. Rodin, and J.H. Wilmore (Eds.). (1992) Eating, Body Weight and Performance in Athletes. Disorders of Modem Society. PhiladelphiaLea & Febiger, pp. 3-14.Coelho, G. M. de O., Gomes, A. I. da S.,Ribeiro, B. G., & Soares, E. de A. (2014). Prevention of eating disordersin female athletes. coarse Access Journal of Sports Medicine,5,105113. http//doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S36528El Ghoch, M., Soave, F., Calugi, S., &Dalle Grave, R. (2013). Eating Disorders, Physical Fitness and SportPerformance A Systematic Review.Nutrients,5(12),51405160. http//doi.org/10.3390/nu5125140Epling,W.F., and W.D. Pierce. Activity based anorexia nervosa. Int. J. Eating Disorders 7475-485, 1988Folscher, L.-L., Grant, C. C., Fletcher, L.,& Janse van R ensberg, D. C. (2015). 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Nurse-led Clinics in Respiratory Care: a Literature Review

Nurse-led Clinics in Respiratory C are a Literature ReviewINTRODUCTION1. What is a hold in-led clinic?As the coined term suggests, a keep-led clinic is a wellness trade focalise in which fellates are involved in high level specialist procedures and assessments. In much(prenominal) centres, sucks are the deprecative decision makers, being involved in patient reverence at the micro-, meso-, and macro-levels. While the office staff of the physician in the provision of wellness precaution is undisput equal to(p), the deity-like circumstance that medical practitioners typically fox in the mind of patients, coupled with the limited time available for individual patient consultations, make it hard for these group of health care professionals to tackle the softer side of patient care. Nurses, on the an some other(prenominal) hand, defined by the Oxford Medical Dictionary as health care professionals that are practised and experienced in nursing matters and entrusted with t he care of the sick and the carrying out of medical and surgical routines, are better placed to provide this crucial follow-up, especially in the care of patients with degenerative diseases.According to Hatchett (2003), a think of-led clinic is a clinic in which obliges have their own patient suit loads of whom they take complete charge. Hatchett broadly describes the components of such a clinic. There would be an increase in autonomy associated with the nursing role in the nurse-led clinic, with the power to admit, discharge or refer patients, as appropriate. In Hatchetts own words, the roles which nurses adopt in these revolutionary settings lavatory be broadly classified as follows (Hatchett, 2003)EducationPsychological supportPatient monitorThe initiation of nurse-led initiatives probably owes its origins to the rise in nursing specialties in the building blocked Kingdom. Throughout primary and secondary care, nurses are taking senior positions in health care institutions , such as nurse specialists, nurse practitioners, nurse consultants, nurse prescribers, etc, leading to a marked change in supporter delivery and the indite of the nursing profession. In addition to the usual registered nurse training, nurses working at higher levels of practice receive training to acquire a range of other medical skills such as physical examination and medical history taking in order to recognise abnormal clinical findings.In a ii-phase exploratory study to evaluate the domains of structure, process and outcome of nurse-led clinics in supporting intermediate care after the acute phase of disease, Wong et al (2006) interviewed nurses from 34 clinics and 16 physicians and observed 162 nurse-led clinic sessions. Their findings demonstrated the high level of skill and experience of the nurses who ran the clinics. Their work involved skills such as adjusting medications and initiating therapies, and diagnostic tests according to protocols. Interventions included asse ssments and evaluations, and health counselling. entirely patients studied showed improvement after the nurse clinic consultation, with the best rates reported in wound and continence clinics satisfaction scores for both nurses and clients were high. However, although physicians valued their fusion in care with the nurses, they were concerned about possible legal liability resulting from the advanced roles assumed by these nurses.Ultimately, nurse-led clinics provide an integral and invaluable patient-centred approach to the forethought of continuing disease which build upon skills such as counselling, teaching and health promotion which are key to contemporary nursing practice, as well as newfoundly acquired medical skills. The advent if nurse-led clinics provides an opportunity for nurses to develop enhanced roles in which they can achieve more autonomy in their practice. This can be do a reality if adequate training and education, as well as put inive leadership are in pl ace (Wiles et al, 2001).2. The general roles of nurses in chronic care directionThe chief nursing officer, Sarah Mullally has proposed ten key roles for nurses in autonomous patient care. These are outlined below as cited by Hatchett (2003) fix up diagnostic interventions just like a medical practitioner would, the present-day nurse is able to ask for laboratory or clinical diagnostic tests to promote the process of diagnosis. Furthermore, a well-trained nurse will also be able to read and interpret laboratory results effectivelyMake and receive referrals directly charm the all-important roles of nurses are recognised, the need for a multidisciplinary approach to patient care remains key in order to optimise patient outcomes. Accordingly, nurses should be able to recognise the patients needs and refer them to the appropriate health care service as required. Similarly, nurses should be ready to accept referrals from other health care disciplines as necessary.Admit and discharge pa tients for specified conditions, within agreed protocols in order to make the best subroutine of the often limited hospital resources, a nurse should have the power to recommend patients for hospital admission and concomitant dischargeManage patient case loads in nurse-led clinics, nurses are also liable for managing their individual case loads. It is important to delegate patient cases to other members of the team, when necessary to ensure that patients receive the best care possible.Run clinics the autonomous role of the nurse in a nurse-led clinic includes all aspects of the prudence and day-to-day running of the clinic.Prescribe medications and treatments nurse prescribers are able to advise patients on appropriate treatment, based on diagnosis of ailment and individual characteristics and laboratory findings.Carry out a wide range of resuscitation procedures, including defribillationPerform minor surgery and outpatient procedures especially in stain clinics. While nurses a re probably not equipped to carry out full-fledged surgical operations alone, they are trained to conduct emergency processes as appropriate.Triage patients, using the latest information technology, to the most appropriate health care professionalTake a lead in the way local health services are organised and in the way they are runNurses have always been considered as a supplement to the fundamental care provided by medical doctors. In fact, in some geographical regions, nursing roles are limited to menial tasks such as changing bedpans etc. In the new age, the nursing role as we know it is becoming increasingly important with nurses taking on infinitely more clinical roles. This has led to controversial debates with critics line of reasoning that nurses cannot replace doctors in the provision of health care services. As Richard Hatchett very astutely pointed out (2003), the increased autonomy being acquired by nurses is not a bid to compete with medical doctors. Instead, it is a c ase of considering who can provide the most appropriate service to the patient (Hatchett, 2003).Thus, it is clear that the roles of nurses in chronic care focusing is very diverse and can be integrated into any nurse-led clinic intervention to the utmost benefit of the patient and all stakeholders. There have been numerous studies on the role of nurses in the care of patients with chronic diseases. In addition, and more specifically, the feasibility and benefits of implementing nurse-led clinics in practice have also been investigated to some extent. In the subsequent sections, we will revaluation the evidence to support these modern nursing interventions in an attempt to make the best use of health care resources.3. Nurse-led clinics in the management of chronic care diseases the evidenceThe World Health Organization (2002) defines chronic diseases as health care problems that require ongoing management over a period of years or decades. The nature of these disease conditions ma ke it necessary to provide long term care and follow-up for the afflicted patients. Nurse-led interventions have been investigated a wide range of chronic diseases. It could be a logical, user-friendly, cost-effective and practical approach to improving long-term patient outcomes and should be explored fully to maximise the contributions of nurses to the chronic care management.Although this review aims to analyse the effectiveness of nurse-led clinics in the treatment of respiratory diseases, a prior look at the role of these interventions in the management of other chronic care diseases will provide an insight to the general contributory roles of nurses and will serve as a foundation for complete understanding of this utter of the art intervention.3.1 Nurse-led interventions in the management of diabetesNumerous studies have evaluated the benefits and practicalities of nurse-led clinics in the long-term management of diabetes. The renal diabetic nurse specialist is described as an essential player in organising the management of, and to meet, all aspects of need of this group of patients (Marchant, 2002). An unintended benefit of a nurse-led clinic to reduce cardiovascular bump is improved glycaemic control, HbA1c (Woodward et al, 2005). In particular, nurse-led diabetic clinics have been shown to benefit specific ethnic groups. Matthias et al (1998) identified the needs of diabetic patients from minority ethnic groups, such as blacks and Asians and postulated that nurse-led clinics were of particular benefit in this patient group. As epidemiological data show that diabetes is most common in minority ethnic groups (Carter et al, 1996), the importance of these innovative interventions is further emphasised.3.2 Nurse-led interventions in the management of cardiovascular diseaseCare of patients with cardiovascular diseases is broad and involves many aspects, from risk factor management (non pharmacologic interventions), primary and secondary prevention of clinical events, pharmacological therapy, surgical procedures, etc. Through a large well-designed haphazardized controlled trial in Scotland, Campbell et al (1998) showed that nurse-led clinics were practical to implement general practice and led to an strong increase in various aspects of the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Significant improvements were noted in aspirin management, blood pressure management, lipid compose management, diet and physical activity, regardless of the individual patients baseline cardio performance or status. However, surprisingly, thither was no recorded improvement on locoweed cessation, which would have been a beneficial intervention in most acute and chronic disease states, including respiratory diseases.In addition to the apparent effectiveness of the nurse-led clinics in the long-term primary and secondary prevention of coronary heart disease, the optimal use of nurses in the care of these patients has been shown to be cost-effe ctive in terms of role adjusted bread and butter years (QALYs) (Raftery et al, 2005). In this large cost-effectiveness analysis, although the cost of the nurse-led clinic intervention was 136 higher per patient, the differences in other National Health Service (NHS) costs was not statistically strong. Furthermore, there were 28 more deaths in the non-intervention group leading to a gain, in the intervention group, in mean life-years per patient of 0.110 and of 0.124 QALYs.3.3 Nurse-led interventions in rheumatologyThe role of clinical specialist medical doctors in the care of their patients is unquestionable however, the role of nurses in the therapy area of rheumatology (i.e. in patients with rheumatoid arthritis) is also well documented. Hill and colleagues (1994) clearly demonstrated the effectiveness, safety and acceptability of a nurse practitioner in a rheumatology outpatient clinic. Although this was a small study with a sample size that nevertheless included 70 patients , the statistical significance of the findings of this randomised controlled trial cannot be ignored. In patients managed in the Rheumatology Nurse Practitioner clinic, pain, morning stiffness, psychological status, patient management and satisfaction all improved significantly (p = 0.001 p = 0.028 p = 0.0005 pIn addition, patient satisfaction is often higher in patients who are allocated to nurse care than those allocated to standard medical care (Hill, 1997). In yet another study by Dr Jackie Hill, a registered nurse at the Academic and Clinical Unit for Musculoskeletal Nursing in the Chapel Allerton Hospital in Leeds, the re awaiters concluded that a nurse-led clinic is effective and safe and is associated with additional benefits, such as greater omen control and enhanced patient self-care, compared with standard outpatient care.3.4 Nurse-led interventions in crab louse careThe effectiveness of nurse-led care in different common cancer afflictions has been researched variousl y. An extensive review article by Loftus and Weston (2001) discussed the patient needs that could be met by nurses working in nurse-led clinics and highlighted the experience and skills of advanced nursing practice that make such innovative care a reality.The types of nurse-led interventions are as varied as the different types of cancers for which they are used. These range from nurse-led telephone clinics in patients with malignant glioma (Sardell et al, 2001) nurse-led follow up in patients receiving therapy for breast cancer (Koinberg et al, 2004) and nurse-led screening programmes in Hong Kong Chinese women with cervical cancer (Twinn and Cheung, 1999).In a randomised controlled trial in a specialist cancer hospital and three cancer units in southeastern England, Moore et al (2002) assessed the effectiveness of nurse-led follow-up in the management of patients with lung cancer. The findings of the study showed high levels (75%) of patient acceptability. This negates the possibi lity of patients cut back confidence in nurses ability and preference for standard medical doctor care. Clinical outcomes were also greatly improved as shown by less repelling dyspnoea at three months (p=0.03), better scores for emotional functioning (p=0.03), and less peripheral neuropathy at 12 months (p=0.05).3.5 Nurse-led interventions in the management of HIV contagious diseaseUsing a rigorous model of comprehensive care nurse-led clinic in genitourinary medicine to compare nurse-led and doctor-led clinics at a central London medicine clinic, Miles and colleagues (2003) reported reliable and valid results to support the use of the nurse-led variety as an acceptable pick to the existing doctor-led clinics. More specifically, the British HIV Association (BHIVA)/British Association for Sexual Health and HIV (BASHH) advocate the benefits that can be accrued from a nurse-led educational intervention in the care of patients with HIV contagious disease (Poppa et al, 2003). A sma ll pilot study that investigated the effects of a 6-month nurse-led educational programme reported that improved virological responses were seen in treatment-experienced patients (Alexander et al, 2001).While a mass of the studies on nurse-led clinics in other chronic diseases can be broadly applied to nurse-led care in patients with respiratory diseases, differences in the nature of these diseases and the necessary care pathways mean that the extent to which these tested interventions can be applied to other therapy areas is, in actual fact, limited. Government policies that advocate the clinical and economic effectiveness of nurse-led interventions frequently pool together evidence from all therapeutic areas. Indeed, it can be hypothesised that, if nursing interventions are shown be practical alternatives for medical care in convoluted diseases with poor prognoses, such as cancer, HIV and coronary heart diseases, care of patients with respiratory diseases which generally have be tter prognoses should be easily, effectively and safely undertaken by qualified and well-trained nurses.Nevertheless, these findings of the effectiveness of nurse-led interventions in the numerous chronic diseases explored in previous sections, should be applied to the different patient population with respiratory diseases. As a good deal as possible, research findings from similar patient groups should be applied in clinical practice in order to ensure that evidence-based practice in this case is relevant.4. Government policies influencing the creation of nurse-led clinicsGovernment health policies in the United Kingdom actively support the extension of nurses skills into areas such as nurse prescribing and the development of nurse practitioner posts (NHS Plan 2000 Department of Health). Government initiatives that that strive to reduce consultation waiting times and optimise the use of medical practitioners indirectly support the establishment of nurse-led clinics. The Governmen t has endorsed the implementation of nurse-led clinics as a means of increasing access to specialist health care and treatment more quickly and also as an effective way to manage chronic conditions (Hatchett, 2003).In the Department of Health (1999) document, Making a difference, government plans for strengthening nursing contribution to health care is presented. The Government has launched an ambitious programme of measures to improve the National Health Service and the health of the public, and the role of the nursing profession in this initiative cannot be overemphasised.The key nurse-related points of the document are outlined belowTo extend the roles of nurses, midwives and health visitors to make better use of their knowledge an skills including making it easier for them to prescribeTo modernise the roles of instruct nurses and health visitors in supporting the new health strategy and other policiesTo see more nurse-led primary care services to improve accessibility and resp onsivenessThe document highlights numerous nurse-led initiatives that have been effectively implemented all around the United Kingdom. A nurse-led minor injury service in rural Cornwall has provided patients with a number of benefits easier accessibility, reduced waiting times, reduced need for on-site medical attendance, increased patient satisfaction and reduced need for transfers to local Accident and fatality departments. Similarly, a nurse-led rapid response team in Peterborough responds to acute crisis cases and allows patients to be nursed at home. Evaluation has shown that 71% of patients referred to this hospital at home service would have been admitted to hospital if the service did not exist. Other effective live nurse-led services include a nurse-led rheumatology service in Merseyside and a nurse-led intermediate care unit in Liverpool.Furthermore, several nurse interventions are advocated in the document for contributing to the management of cardiovascular disease. Sev eral of these are also applicable to respiratory diseases these includeSmoking cessation clinics using national smoking cessation guidelinesHealthy lifestyle clinics in collaboration with other health professionals to address factors such as diet, nutrition and exercise, thus improving overall healthCare for patients with congestive cardiac failure under home-based initiativesNurse-led chest pain clinics or risk factor screening and reduction clinicsNurse-led blood pressure clinics to identify and help manage blood pressure disorders and medication adherence5. Review objectivesThe objectives of this review areTo briefly summarise various studies on effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of nurse-led interventions in common respiratory diseasesTo critically appraise the methods employed by these studiesTo evaluate, interpret, and where possible, compare the findings of the various studiesTo explore the applicability and generalisability of the results to practice in the appropriate pat ient populationTo make suggestions for future studies in this area.METHODSLiterature searchA search of two major databases, MEDLINE and EMBASE, was conducted to identify articles published from 1990 through 2008. Search terms that were used include nurse, nurse-led clinic, nurse-led interventions, respiratory diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchiectasis, tuberculosis, cystic fibrosis, cost-effectiveness analysis, cost-benefit analysis, and economics. A secondary search of the reference lists was then conducted to identify relevant articles, editorials, and other unoriginal reports that whitethorn have been missed in the primary search.Some studies were excluded based on the followers criteriaThey were not conducted in patient populations with respiratory diseasesIndependent nurse-led interventions were not investigatedThe study populations being investigated were mixed in terms of diagnosis, which would affect the integrity of the study findings for resp iratory diseasesThe methodology and/ or statistical analysis methods were not clearly elucidated6. Nurse-led clinics in the management of respiratory diseases a review of the evidenceThe role of the specialist respiratory nurse has evolved since the early 1980s with the support of the Royal College of Physicians (RCP 1981). The possible complexity of respiratory patients regimens necessitates support with various aspects of their care plans, such asSupervising nebuliser and inhalator techniquesMonitoring progress, i.e. by periodical assessment of lung function and exercise capacityEducation on the specific disorder, medications, potential adverse events, etcCounselling and education on positive lifestyle, or non-pharmacological, changesAdherence support and monitoringThe role has developed further with nurses providing nurse-led clinics in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and asthma along with nurses providing early supportive discharge and hospital at home for patients with COPD (French et al, 2003). Some schools of thought argue that nurse-led clinics would culminate in the neglect of the more traditional nursing roles, as nurses focus on a more medical-focused aspect of patient care. However, research in other therapy areas, such as rheumatology (Hill et al, 1994) and mental health (Reynolds et al, 2000) shows that nurses can effectively combine the medical role with the traditional nursing approach. Nursing care strives to provide a holistic approach to care through practical management of disability, education and counselling and referral to other health care services as required (Rafferty and Elborn 2002).6.1 BronchiectasisNurse-led clinics have been evaluated, compared with regular doctor-led clinics, in a single randomised controlled trial in patients with bronchiectasis, a respiratory condition in which there is widening of the bronchi or their branches (Sharples et al, 2002). The study was a randomised controlled crossover trial including 80 patients in a bronchiectasis outpatient clinic. Patients received 1 year of nurse led care and 1 year of doctor led care in random order, and were followed up for 2 years. Various outcome indicators were used in the comparison, including lung function and exercise capacity, infective exacerbations, hospital admissions, quality of life and cost-effectiveness of the intervention. The results of this study are illustrated in Table 1 below.Table 1 Nurse-led and doctor-led care in care of patients with bronchiectasis (Sharples et al, 2002)Measurement outcomeNurse-ledDoctor-ledMean difference(95% CI)p-valueForced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) (%)1.871.860.01 (-0.04 to 0.06)Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) (L)69.769.50.2 (-1.6 to 2.0)Forced vital capacity (FVC) (%)87.687.6-0.02 (-1.5 to 1.4)12 minute walk surmount (m)76574618 (-13 to 48)Infective exacerbations (patient years of follow up)262 (79.4)238 (77.8)0.34Hospital admissions attributable to patients bronchi ectasis43230.22As the table above clearly shows, there was no statistical difference in FEV1/FVC percent predicted or distance walked between nurse led and doctor led care in thetwo treatment periods. Furthermore, 262 episodes of infective exacerbations were recorded by patients in the nurse practitioner-led care group in 79.4 patient years of follow up, compared with 238 in 77.8 years in the doctor-led care group. Thus, nurse practitioner-led care is associated with a relative rate of exacerbations of 1.09 (95% CI 0.91 to 1.30), p=0.34.Using the St Georges Respiratory Disease questionnaire to assess differences in health-related quality of life between the two groups, there was no statistically significant differences in each of the scores for Symptoms, Control, Impact or total score. Also, the study showed that nurse-led care resulted in significantly higher costs per patient compared with doctor-led care this was largely due to the difference in the number of hospital admissions and intravenous and nebulised antibiotic costs. Theauthors concluded that nurse practitioner-led care for stable patients within a chronic chest clinic is safe and is as effective as doctor led care, but may use more resources.This study has several potential limitations which could invalidate the findings. As the study relied on patient report to record the prescriptions issued by general practitioners, these may have been underestimated and could grossly affect the cost analysis. Conversely, the nurse practitioner was required to record prescriptions and tests issued at the clinic, and thus these records are probably more reliable and she would be more likely to have ensured that patients left with supplies of routine treatment. Another possible drawback of this study is the use of a crossover design in the methodology. Unless a wash-out period is integrate in the study design, there is the possibility of a carryover effect with crossover study designs, with the danger that the e ffects of the earlier treatment is falsely attributed to the final observationaltreatment. In this study, there was no allowance for a washout period and thus this could affect the reliability and validity of the study results. This order and time effect needs to be checked for within the analyses but it can rarely be excluded as potential biasing factors (Pocock 1983). However, as recruited patients received the interventions in random order, this may negate the carryover effect.Despite the possible limitations of the study that could potentially hinder its applicability in practice, the findings support the implementation of a nurse-led clinic in patients with chronic cases of bronchiectasis as an alternative to the standard rigid medical care.6.2 AsthmaSimilar to the findings in the study by Sharples and colleagues (2002) in patients with bronchiectasis, Nathan et al (2006) more recently compared the effect of follow-up by a nurse specialist with follow-up by a respiratory docto r following an acute asthma admission. In a single centre prospective randomised controlled trial, 154 patients admitted with acute asthma were randomly assigned to receive an initial 30-min follow-up clinic appointment within 2 weeks of hospital discharge with every a specialist nurse or respiratory doctor. The intervention comprised a medical review, patient education, and a self-management asthma plan. Further follow-up was then pose as was deemed appropriate by the corresponding doctor or nurse, and all patients were asked to attend a 6-month appointment.Despite hospital outpatient follow-up, there was a significant harmonize of patients in both groups who had exacerbations. However, there was no statistically significant difference between the two groups (Table 2). In the same manner, there was no statistically significant difference in quality of life assessed with two different validated questionnaires, the Asthma Questionnaire and the St George Respiratory Questionnaire. M ean change in bloom of youth flow at 6 months was similar between the two groups, probably indicating equivalence of the two tested interventions. Nathan et al (2006) concluded that follow-up care by a nurse specialist for patients admitted with acute asthma can be delivered equivocally with comparable safety and effectiveness to that traditionally provided by a doctor practitioner.Table 2 Nurse-led and doctor-led care in follow-up care of patients admitted with acute asthma (Nathan et al, 2006)Measurement outcomeNurse-ledDoctor-ledOdds ratio(95% CI)Mean difference(95% CI)p-valueChange in thrill flow1.39 (-3.84 to 6.63)0.122Infective exacerbations (%)45.649.20.86 (0.44 to 1.71)0.674Quality of life87.687.6-0.02 (-1.5 to 1.4)Asthma Questionnaire0.78 (-0.64 to 2.19)0.285St George Respiratory Questionnaire1.08 (5.05 to 7.21)0.891The possible limitations associated with this study is the large amount of missing data for some outcomes, especially peak flow and quality of life

Code-switching and the use of different varieties of English in blogs in a multilingual context

Code-switching and the wont of disaccordent varieties of face in blogs in a multilingual contextAbstractThis support paper attempts to rationalize the reasons as to why code-switching and different varieties of English argon utilise in blogs among five-year-old adults who ar skilful in the dustup. The varieties that were found in all 6 case aim blogs differ precise much in style and play, ranging anywhere from colloquial to formal, or written in grammatically correct English to simple use of the voice communication along with mild to heavy code-switching. Three important questions were raised and answered in the paper, namely i) what are the varieties of languages apply in the blogs? ii) to what extent does the code-switching take place (e.g. reciprocation, sentence level)? and iii) what are the reasons for the occurrences of the code-switching?1. IntroductionThe accentuate of ones birthplace lingers in the mind and in the heart as it does in ones vernacular Rochefo ucauld, Maximes, 342Blogs are currently a growing tr annihilate, especially among the younger generation who are technologically savvy. Maintaining a blog is al close to a average and to both(prenominal) people, something that they set upnot live with emerge. Many of these youngsters regard blogs as their means of expressing their sense of independence and individualism. It is their private world a place where they are able to direct their mind without anyone questioning them (disregarding instances of comments be left by readers). However, just like the writers themselves who are different from one another, the language varieties that are used in these blogs differ very much in style and form, reflecting the writers individuality. The language place betray from being colloquial to formal, or in cases where the writers are multilingual, display instances of heavy code-switching. These reasons for code-switching could range from trying to create a sense of importance about a true topic or individual, to simply wanting to reflect ones individualism and background knowledge by using certain expressions that are intended to exclude or include certain speech communities. For example, a blog written in the Malayalam language is meant hardly for readers who are able to read and write in the language, and thus not for the purpose of general viewing. This study attempts to examine the use of code-switching in certain Malayan blogs and examine the possible reasons for code-switching by individuals who are proficient in English. 2. Literature ReviewHaugen (1953, p.7) defines bilingualism as a phenomenon where the speaker of one language can produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language. As highlighted in Hakuta (1986), Mackey (1967) has to a fault claimed that bilingualism, far from being exceptional, is a problem which affects the majority of the worlds tribe (p.11). This is a secernment that I do not fully agree on, because bilingualism shou ld not be considered a problem, exclusively much a reflection of fast globalization and an increasingly borderless world. Hakuta (1986, p.10) too explains that the story of bilingualism is in offset about the changing perspectives of social scientists, metamorphoses that occur not simply as a portion of trends in the profession but as a function of trends in society as a whole. This is something quite relevant to the topic of bilingualism as it has a lot to do with the changing perspectives of society and how it really functions as a trend. In Paradiss (Ed.) (1978), it is claimed that since the reference of individual idiosyncratic factors seems to be an important shot of code-switching, in that among groups of approximately equal bilingual abilities, some code-switch more than others, a complete de endpointination of the sufficient conditions for code-switching believably lies beyond the reach of behavioral sciences. Paradis (1978) in addition gain ground stated that within a given linguistic community, there appears to be no single set of norms that de marchesines how very much, within a single sentence, languages whitethorn shifted, nor how many newsworthinesss or syllables must intervene between switches. This is very true if bilingual communities such as within the Malaysian context are observed, where most of the people are multilingual and code-switching is an almost sub-conscious part of their lives.Dopke (1992), claims that code-switching can arise as a result of changes to the participants in a conversation, the setting, the discourse fictional character or the topic or by the speakers need to emphasize or clarify a point, to attract or retain the tending of the minder, to quote somebody else or to simply exclude or include specific audiences. For example, Pillai (2008) shows that code-switching in this context is related to the concept of power and solidarity, and reflects ones identity within a community. Adler (1977, p.154), poi nts out that if a person were to learn a language in his base of operations country, and learns it good, he go forth be affected by it to some extent. Adler (1977, p.154) further adds that he will have to absorb at least part of the culture of the society whose language he learnsspeaking the language with natives will not only perfect his knowledge but he will also change code-switch more than would be the case otherwise. This is delinquent to the influence of other languages in his environment which affects his primary language. This theory would be used as the theoretical framework in the analysis of data from the case study blogs used for this frame paper. In a study on the use of Tagalog-English in blogs written by Filipino bloggers, Smedley (2006) summarized that switching is not merely a product of how speakers mention to the orderly production of conversation, but also a product of how they practise to the inherent heteroglossic nature of language and exploit their l inguistic repertoire maximally to put one over their communication as effective as possible, and to construct and negotiate multiple identities. This is proven when an individual code-switch to further elaborate and explicate meanings through communication with others just about them, for example when using certain terms or phrases unique to a certain vernacular language in a predominantly English conversation. This is an cardinal premise of which I will attempt to examine in this study.Pillai (2008) also points out that switching can be at the micro level of accent switching in the Malaysian context where speakers do not change language variety but put on a different ethnical accent to reflect ones identity within a community i.e. to be included in various speech communities.It is also pointed out by Ibrahim (2005, cited in Pillai 2008) that there exists a craving to use our own brand of English to construct a sense of belonging and identity and to emphasize solidarity or oth erwise, and to announce a particular stance or emotion. This is another underlying premise regarding code-switching that this study attemps to explore. Similarly, Lipski (2008) discusses the sense of identity as seen within the context of code-switching and bilingualism.This study will be based on the two assumptions. The first is the assumption by Adler (1977, p.154), that if a person were to learn a language in his home country, and learns it well, he will be affected by it to some extent. Adler further adds that He will have to absorb at least part of the culture of the society whose language he learnsspeaking the language with natives will not only perfect his knowledge but he will also change code-switch more than would be the case otherwise.The second would be a hypotheses by Smedley (2006) where he claims that switching is not merely a product of how speakers attend to the orderly production of conversation, but also a product of how they attend to the inherent heteroglossic nature of language and exploit their linguistic repertoire maximally to progress their communication as effective as possible, and to construct and negotiate multiple identities. 3. AimThis research aims to examine the extent of code-switching in blogs written by individuals who are proficient in the English Language, and to determine the possible reasons for code-switching. In relation to these aims, the research questions that are addressed by this study are as follows1. What are the varieties of languages used in the blogs? 2. To what extent does the code-switching take place (e.g. word, sentence level)? 3. What are the reasons for the occurrences of the code-switching?4. MethodologyIn order to obtain the relevant data for this research paper, 6 (6) blogs were chosen three blogs each from writers of the two major ethnic groups in Malaysia, namely Chinese and Malays. The writers of all six blogs that were chosen are first, second and ternion year English major students from t he Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya. The main reason as to why only English major students were chosen is because they are proficient in the language, and thus would provide interesting data which may provide answers to the research questions raised. All six blogs were analyzed to examine the varieties of languages used, and the extent to which they were used as well as the reasons for the code-switching.The analysis was done based on two levels i) intra-language (variations within English) code-switching at word and sentence level and ii) inter-language code-switching at word and sentence level.5. Findings preachingFor this research, only data (blog entries) from the months of July to December 2008 were looked at and analysed. This is so that the data acquired is not too broad or too general, resistanta pointing out specific expound which would help in the analysis of data. Three blogs by Malay bloggers and another three blogs by Chinese bloggers wer e studied and used as data. 5.1 Intra-language code-switching at word levelI wus lyk, black out .This sentence is quite interesting as it is made up of a fewer different varieties of English. The word wus is rattling was, and this method of spelling and pronunciation is used mainly in African American Vernacular English speech. The word lyk, which is actually a short form of like, is used primarily in non-standard American English speech, where the word is inserted in the middle of sentences usually before a verb to describe ones emotional state or reaction. notice anything kewl today on my page The term kewl here is actually a differed spelling for cool, used usually in youngrs and young adults jargon. The term, in this context, amazes about the meaning of different and/or interesting or good. The pronunciation for the word is as its written form. I fucking despise my fucking life .In this sentence from one of the bloggers entries, the curse word fucking is used twice to furth er illustrate her anger and frustration. This syntactical defining is generally considered non-standard in adjunct to being offensive or taboo. However, many youngsters these days use this term very freely and it is accepted among the youth today. So Ill say, screw you . Similarly, the phrase screw you is considered non-standard, although not as offensive as the earlier example. This phrase has a few attached meanings to it including fuck you and to nether region with you. n btw, its from mahatma gandhi .In this sentence, the blogger uses the term btw which is an acronym for the phrase by the look. This acronym is non-standard English and is used only in written form. In addition to that, n is used in replacement of the more standard And, although it is not usually used at the beginning of a formal sentence. And the prick just went on . Although the blogger uses a generally informal variety of written English, she does code-switch to a non-standard term in between her words the use of the term prick, for example, is considered offensive and taboo in most cases. Here, it is used mainly to illustrate her frustration and anger. 5.2 Intra-language code-switching at sentence levelI terribly hearts you .This is a unique way of youngsters present tense to express their love or liking for something, usually towards non-animate objects, as seen here where the blogger expresses her liking for a TV programme. This style of writing is not accepted in Standard English however it is so in modern teenagers jargon. What the heck .The phrase highlighted here is a very informal utterance which is used to simply depict ones annoyance. This sentence is generally considered non-standard and is usually used to show exasperation or displeasure towards something, as seen in the example above. Oh no-ness .This phrase is considered ungrammatical in addition to being non-standard. Although for the most part the blogger uses standard and grammatically accepted written English, she chooses to switch to a less grammatical sentence structure, in this case most probably for the purpose of emphasizing her disappointment. 5.3 Inter-language code-switching at word levelNenek belanja all 8 of us to watch the movie .Here, the blogger code-switches from English to Malay to draw attention to the fact that her grandmother (whom she refers to as Nenek a result of her hailing from a Malay culture background) had hard-boiled all eight of her siblings and family members to a movie. This is an interesting feature as many people in Malaysia, regardless of their age, race and English proficiency level, use the term belanja quite often to replace the English equivalent treated. It is the main reason as to why the term, like many others akin to it, has a very Malaysian flavour to it.even my abah had forgotten that it was my bday Similarly, another blogger from a Malay culture background used the term abah to refer to her father. She does not use the English terms father (forma l) or dad (informal), but chooses instead to keep the term she uses to call him abah. As seen in the examples here, words or phrases referring to kinship terms are generally maintained in written form. This can be due to the habit or familiarity with the concept (family members) which flummoxs it easier to refer to them with the names as per given and called. Whatever la .The term la is a very typical Colloquial Malaysian English discourse particle which is used primarily used at the end or beginning of a sentence, though occasionally they are inserted in the middle of sentences. Influenced by the Malay languages -lah affix, it is commonly used in English conversations for various reasons, such as to create a sense of Malaysian-ism for an individual or to alter the meaning or tone of a sentence (to stress a point, persuade, show an acceptance of an offer, show treaty or admittance, or to soften a brusque reply).plus, pray to Allah that those who r responsible for th death wil ac cept th biggest punishment in th world .In the sentence above, the blogger refers to God as Allah. This is due to her ethnical background i.e. being a Muslim. Usually, Muslims tend to refer to God as Allah because that is the term used to refer to God in the Muslim holy book, the Al-Quran. Many Muslims grow up having to learn and read the book, as well as go for religious classes all of which influences each and every one of them in terms used to refer to religious matters including the name for God. maybe theres hikmah in all of this .Here, the blogger uses the term hikmah to bring about the meaning of silver lining. The Malay language term was chosen and used most probably because of the cultural background (being a Malay) of the blogger herself, where this term is used more often as compared to the English language equivalent. In addition to that, the Malay term is preferred most probably due to the meaning it produces the English translation of the term does not fully explain a nd carry the meaning of the term as compared to Malay. First attempt to insert a new stickpatah .Here the blogger code-switches from English to Malay in one of her entries. This term is widely used in the Malay language, as well as Colloquial Malaysian English where it is used to mean anything that is broken. In the context of this access, the blogger uses the term to refer to her ruined hand fan. wae-yo saranghae-yo This particular blogger code-switches from English to Korean in one of the entries. Although she is not Korean by heritage, she is interested in Korean culture and this is proven by her statement i guess some of you already know of my fondness for all things Korean e.g. dramas, songs, actors, singers, food etc. therefore i wont say much. Due to the nature of the topic discussed in this particular entry (related to the Korean culture, specifically music), the blogger chooses to code-switch between English and Korean, although only at word level, most probably because s he is not proficient in the language. listen to my plead of untaggin moi .This particular blogger as seen here, code-switches from English to French. There is no apparent reason as to why she code-switches in this context, although it can be deduced that she has had some kind of exposure to the French language to be able to code-switch freely. In addition to that, she might have chosen to code-switch in this context to create more violence on herself.Im trying to earn money to pay for my cravings for oyster mee suah .The blogger code-switches from English to Chinese in this particular entry, where the term mee suah is used, used to refer to a favourite dish among the Chinese community. Due to the inexistence of the term in English, the blogger chooses to use the Chinese term to illustrate the concept. However, only people whom are familiar with the Chinese language and/or dishes would be able to relate and fully comprehend the bloggers thoughts and points. Uncle, please hor . In this sentence, the blogger inserts a Chinese discourse particle in an English phrase. The origination of this term is to indicate a mode or sense of sarcasm as well as emphasis, where in this context the blogger is being sarcastic to a Chinese cab driver who was very rude to her. I busy ma .This particular blogger inserts the Chinese discourse particle ma at the end of her sentence. It is slot in at the end to stress her point, as well as a reminder to others that she was busy at the referred point in time. Stupidnya The suffix -nya from the Malay language is used very commonly among Malaysians of all race and cultural background not just when using Malay but also English. Here, the suffix is inserted alongside English words (usually adjectives, as seen in the example above). This is frequently done to put emphasis on the state of something or psyche at a certain point of time. The usage of this suffix, in addition to other examples, tends to create a truly Malaysian feeling as on ly Malaysians tend to use the -nya suffix in this unique manner.5.4 Inter-language code-switching at sentence levelHabis cerita . As seen here, the blogger ends her primarily English language entry with this Malay utterance. In the context of this entry, the blogger used this phrase in substitution of None of this would have happened or Problem solved. This popular Malay phrase is used quite commonly among Malaysians to create a meaning close to Not having so many problems. The blogger probably chose to use the Malay phrase not only because she is Malay, but because the English equivalent to the phrase may not provide the exact intended meaning as compared to the Malay phrase. Soy Estudiante de Espana This particular blogger starts off her entry in Spanish, but continues in English, further explaining that she would be sitting for her Spanish examination later on that morning, which clarifies the reason as to why she code-switches from English to Spanish in this particular entry. T iap-tiap hari lepas habis buka puasa mesti kemas rumah .For this particular entry, the blogger starts off in Malay and continues her post in English. Here it may be because of the nature of the situation itself where the practice of Buka Puasa is a Malay/Islamic culture, so the writer chooses to express this statement in the Malay language to make her point, as the custom of Buka Puasa is somewhat related to kemas rumah i.e. cleanup the house in preparation for the Hari Raya celebrations. aku tak tau knape. aku sgt curious nk tau wether Although this blog is primarily written in English, this particular entry was in Malay with a few English words inserted here and there. The main reason as to why this entry was written in the Malay language is most probably due to the nature of the topic discussed in the entry related to religion. Islam is almost always associated with the Malay language because the religion itself is taught in Malay, with translations of Arab phrases and terms in to Malay. Thus, when one talks about matters relating to Islam, the use of Malay is, more of than not, preferred even by individuals who are generally proficient in the English language. Tidur, makan, TV, mahjong .This particular blogger does not code-switch as often as compared to the other five bloggers, except on certain occasions only. In this entry the blogger code-switches form English to Malay, albeit for one sentence only. She most probably did this to emphasize the activities that she had been busy with i.e. sleeping, eating, watching TV and playing mahjong (a board game popular among the Chinese) all of which are forms of relaxation, which is something that is quite often regarded as being part of truly Malaysian. 6. ConclusionAlong with physical appearance and cultural characteristics, language is part of what distinguishes one nation from another Finegan, Edward (2004)The varieties of English used in all six blogs range anywhere from standard to non-standard or colloqu ial, as well as grammatical to ungrammatical. In addition to that, other languages are also used alongside English in various entries of all the blogs. These languages include Chinese, Malay, Korean, French and Spanish. The code-switching that takes place in these blogs are not only at word level but also at the sentence level. In some instances, whole entries are in a different language altogether, with a few English words inserted in between lines. There are many reasons as to why code-switching occur in all the blogs researched. In some instances, it may be due to the individual trying to draw attention to something significant regarding certain matters. Here, when a person attempts to emphasize something that is regarded important and needs to be highlighted, code-switching happens both from English to the individuals mother tongue or in certain cases, from English to a foreign language(s). Another reason is as to why code-switching occurs in these blogs is the desire of an ind ividual to stand out among many others. In this case, a person may use certain expressions and phrases which automatically include or exclude selected speech communities. These expressions and phrases may be within English itself where an individual may switch form a certain variety of English to another, or between a dominant language (English, in this context) to another. It is interesting to point out that all the blogs chosen for the purpose of this research were written by individuals who are quite proficient in English. This in mind, one would assume that the possible code-switching that might take place would not be as extensive as what is seen here. However this look was proven wrong, as most individuals are affected by other languages existing around them in one way or another. In a multilingual context such as in Malaysia, it is clear that the assumption by Adler (1977, p.154) that when one learns a language in his home country, and learns it well, he will be affected by it to some extent. Case in point where the blogs that were analysed all had numerous instances of code-switching from English to ones mother tongue (Chinese and Malay). Here, it is apparent that ones cultural background affects ones speech not only verbally but also in written from. Smedleys (2006) claim where he argues that switching is not merely a product of how speakers attend to the orderly production of conversation, but also a product of how they attend to the inherent heteroglossic nature of language and exploit their linguistic repertoire maximally to make their communication as effective as possible, and to construct and negotiate multiple identities is also proven right in this research. When an individual attempts to make a point clear or highlight a certain matter in argument, code-switching occurs. Knowledge of more than one language helps one to bring out the intended meaning of something during an argument, where it is presumed that with the use of more than one lan guage, meanings can be emphasized and made clear. As a result, communication is made more effective. Smedley (2006) also claims that code-switching also occurs due to the desire of an individual to construct and negotiate multiple identities. Here, an individual is seen as wanting to bring out more than what is seen by others around them. For example, an individual who is able to speak and write in grammatically correct and Standard English tries to bring out more than what meets the eye. There is a desire to reveal a different side of the person, working more like an alter egoReferencesAdler, Max K. (1977). Collective and individual bilingualism A sociolinguistic study. Hamburg Helmut Buske Verlag Hamburg.Afendras, Evangelos A. (Ed.). (1980). Patterns of bilingualism. Singapore Singapore University Press. Bilingualism An Overview. (n.d.). Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//psych.colorado.edu/colunga/P7215/overview.pdfBlog. (2008). Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//en.wik ipedia.org/wiki/BlogCode-switching. (2008). Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-switchingDuran, Luisa. Toward a better understanding of code switching and interlanguage in bilinguality Implications for bilingual instruction. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/jeilms/vol14/duran.htmGalasso, Joseph. The development of child code-switching Minimalist constraints and the role of checking theory. Retrieved November 18, 2008 from http//www.csun.edu/galasso/code.pdfHakuta, Kenji. (1986). Mirror of language The debate on bilingiualism. New York Basic Books, Inc. Haugen, Einar. (1987). Blessings of Babel Bilingualism and language planning. Berlin Mouton de Gruyter. Heller, Monica. (Ed.). (1988). Codeswitching Anthropological and sociolinguistic perspectives. Berlin Mouton de Gruyter. Heredia, Roberto R. Brown, Jeffrey M. Code-switching. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.tamiu.edu/rheredia/switch.htmHuffaker, D. A. Calvert, S. L. (2005). Gender, identity, and language use in teenage blogs. In Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10 (2), article 1. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue2/huffaker.htmlLipski, John M. Code-switching or borrowing? No s so no puedo decir, you know. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/2/paper1136.pdfMacSwan, Jeff. A minimalist greet to code switching. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.public.asu.edu/macswan/5.pdfMacSwan, Jeff. The architecture of the bilingual language faculty Evidence from intrasentential code switching. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from hpp//www.public.asu.edu/macswan/Bilingualism.pdfMarasigan, Elizabeth. (1983). Code-switching and code-mixing in multilingual societies. Singapore Singapore University Press. Maya Khemlani David. (Ed.). (2006). Language choices and discourse of Malaysian families. Malaysia Strategic Information and Research Development Centre.Maya Khemlani David Karen Kow Yip Cheng. (Eds.). (2008). Politeness in Malaysian family talk. Malaysia Penerbit Universiti Putra Malaysia. Multilingualism. (2008). Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism Nilep, Chad. Code switching in sociocultural linguistics. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.colorado.edu/ling/CRIL/volume19_Issue1/paper_NILEP.pdfParadis, Michel. (Ed.). (1978). Aspects of bilingualism. South Carolina Hornbeam Press, Incorporated. Paulston, Christina Bratt. (Ed.). (1988). foreign handbook of bilingualism and bilingual education. Connecticut Greenwood Press. Poplack, Shana. (2004). Code-switching. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.sociolinguistics.uottawa.ca/shanapoplack/pubs/articles/Poplack2004.pdfSmedley, Frank P. Code-switching and identity on the blogs An analysis of Taglish in computer mediated communication. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//aut.researchgateway.ac.nz/handle/10292/186Stefanie Pillai. (2008). Speaking Engl ish the Malaysian way correct or not?. English Today.24 (4), 42-45.Suojanen, Pivikki. Aspects of identity Rights and obligations of ethnic groups. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.njas.helsinki.fi.pdf-files/vol1num2/suojanen.pdfVan Gelderen, Elly Macswan, Jeff. Interface conditions and code-switching Pronouns, lexical DPs, and checking theories. Retrieved November 18, 2008, from http//www.public.asu.edu/gelderen/elly-jeff-CS.pdfAppendixBlogger 1 (Malay writer), taken from http//littlecharmvinyls.blogspot.com/ and http//zsazubir.blogspot.com/ Blogger 2 (Malay writer) taken from http//sy4h33r4h.blog.friendster.com/Blogger 3 (Malay writer) taken from http//juzshahidah.blogspot.com/Blogger 4 (Chinese writer) taken from http//ling3586.blogspot.com/Blogger 5 (Chinese writer) taken from http//mandychockjy.blogspot.com/Blogger 6 (Chinese writer) taken from http//evonhooi.blogspot.com/

Edgar Allen Poe :: essays research papers

EDGAR ALLEN POE BIOGRAPHYEdgar Allen Poe was born in 1809 in Boston. His stories were about love and sadness. He died when he was 40 years old in 1849. People said that they found him unconscious and believed him drunk. He was an excellent writer that kept people fascinated with stories. He died as he lived all his life was miserable and with out hope. It believed that he uses a drug named opium that helped him use his imagination and he uses alcohol. Those were his inspirations and his storys that were so fabulous go from there. These things were making him crazy and took him out of control. A thing that made him even more crazy is that everyone he had ever met or loved always semmed to sacrifice died from a disease called tuberculosis. This made him very depressive also.He was born to very poor family. His father was an actor that barley buy meat to eat. He was a little boy when his father abandoned him and their brothers. After that his mother got sick and few months later she died. He went to live with wealthy rich people tho his father didnt necessity to adopt him. His father was a business objet dart and decided to move to England there he went to school to Manner House School. In 1820 he returned to Virginia but he couldnt afford it and decide left school. He fall in love with a neighbor her name was Elmira, but her father didnt want to accept their relationship. His stepfather criticized him about his story saying that they were workless and he decided to leave his house. He went to a military service but he realized that he like more poems than to be in the military service. He often wrote letters to Elmira unknowing that her father received the letters. She married a rich man and become a rich woman. He became heart broken and he began to write love poems. He was living with his real father, sister, muddy and her daughter. After that he married muddys daughter at the age of 27 she was 13 years old. She became sick of tuberculosis and died at the age of 24. He didnt know how to support the family because the poems didnt represent him enough money.

I Was a Washington D.C. Intern :: Essays Papers

I Was a Washington D.C. InternOn June 9, 2003, my life took an interesting turn. It was a sunny day. aristocratic skies, humidity insanely high, and I found myself at 4th Street and Constitution in Washington, D.C. I stood before an angled architectural masterpiece by famed architect I.M. Pei its pointed corners jutted out towards the grassy M in all and Capitol Hill as if it were some sort of Picasso-esque compass pointing simultaneously towards all the tourist hot spots. (The ane corner, purportedly the sharpest building corner in the world, wore a dark gray spot about eye level where thousands if not millions of tourists had touched it just to confab how sharp it really was). I found myself standing before it, not as tourist . . . but as an employee on my first day of work.It all seemed a little overwhelming. How I ended up there still seems like a dream even today. Back in early 2001, opus working in an art museum library in Nashville, Tennessee, I heard about the internships at the National Gallery of Art. They have quite the reputation in the art world. I bemused myself by daydreaming of one day being an intern there. At the time I heard about them I most certainly wasnt a good candidate. I only had the one art museum gig under my belt and I still really lacked wariness in my career ambitions. But fast forward to 2002. I was no longer working at the art museum library (the position was eliminated due to work out cuts) and I was no longer living in Nashville (I moved to Tucson to attend SIRLS). Theres probably nothing else like losing your job to really make you regard out what you want to do with your life. I realized several things I precious to continue working in an information provision setting, and I wanted to work with visual collections, specifically photographs. Because of those goals, I chose to immediately find my way in at the Center for Creative Photography as soon as I arrived on campus in Tucson. I started out as a volunteer and would go on to do an internship there. This critical experience was exactly what I needed to boost my resume to the level of D.C. intern candidate. So . . . six full months before June 9, 2003, I applied for an internship at the National Gallery of Art.

religious policies of England and France from 1603 to 1715 :: essays research papers

Describe the religious policies of England and France from 1603 to 1715. Why do you think rulers feared religious toleration so much?When discussing wherefore the rulers feared religious toleration and how their fears affected what religious policies were enforced, one must first look at what events transpired through the years to get a full accord of the word stubbornness. During the early years, the English church was dividing into a conservative multitudeing site that wanted to retain the religious ceremonies and the hierarchy of the church and a radical, Calvinist camp called Puritans who wanted to "purify" the church of everything not contained in the Old and New Testaments. The Puritans demanded that the English church abandon the elaborate ceremonies and flatten the hierarchy of the church into something to a greater extent closely resembling the voluntary associations of the Calvinist church. King James, however, would have none of the Puritan argument and declar ed, in 1604, that he was fully in the camp of the religious conservatives. This voice between the monarch and the Puritans, which would be continued by his son, Charles I, lit the fire that ignited the English Civil War.Charles sided with the religious conservatives against the more radical Puritans. The archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, was particularly contrasted to the Puritans complaints and Charles allowed him to freely take any measures to stifle their dissent. In 1633, Charles forbade Puritans from publishing or preaching, and in 1637, they tried to bring Scotland under the fold of the English church. The Scots had, for a long time, a Calvinist church based on a flattened hierarchy and the purification of the religion of all non-Biblical practices. The imposition of the English church--which include the English prayerbook, church hierarchy, and rituals and sacraments that were derived from Catholic ceremony--was too much for the Scots to take. So they rebelled. The E nglish Civil War started as a conflict between sevens and Charles over constitutional issues it fired its way to its conclusion through the growing religious constituent in England. The monarch was supported by the aristocracy, property owners, and by the adherents of the Anglican "high church," which retained the ceremonies and hierarchy so despised by the Puritans. The parliamentary cause was supported by the middle class, the Puritans, and the radical Protestants. The kings forces roundly beat the fantanary forces for almost two years and the parliamentary cause seemed all but lost.In 1642, however, Parliament reorganized its army under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, who was a landowner and, in religious matters, an Independent.religious policies of England and France from 1603 to 1715 essays research papers Describe the religious policies of England and France from 1603 to 1715. Why do you think rulers feared religious toleration so much?When discussing why th e rulers feared religious toleration and how their fears affected what religious policies were enforced, one must first look at what events transpired through the years to get a full intellect of the word stubbornness. During the early years, the English church was dividing into a conservative camp that wanted to retain the religious ceremonies and the hierarchy of the church and a radical, Calvinist camp called Puritans who wanted to "purify" the church of everything not contained in the Old and New Testaments. The Puritans demanded that the English church abandon the elaborate ceremonies and flatten the hierarchy of the church into something more closely resembling the voluntary associations of the Calvinist church. King James, however, would have none of the Puritan argument and declared, in 1604, that he was fully in the camp of the religious conservatives. This division between the monarch and the Puritans, which would be continued by his son, Charles I, lit the fire t hat ignited the English Civil War.Charles sided with the religious conservatives against the more radical Puritans. The archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, was particularly contradictory to the Puritans complaints and Charles allowed him to freely take any measures to stifle their dissent. In 1633, Charles forbade Puritans from publishing or preaching, and in 1637, they tried to bring Scotland under the fold of the English church. The Scots had, for a long time, a Calvinist church based on a flattened hierarchy and the purification of the religion of all non-Biblical practices. The imposition of the English church--which include the English prayerbook, church hierarchy, and rituals and sacraments that were derived from Catholic ceremony--was too much for the Scots to take. So they rebelled. The English Civil War started as a conflict between Parliament and Charles over constitutional issues it fired its way to its conclusion through the growing religious division in England. Th e monarch was supported by the aristocracy, landowners, and by the adherents of the Anglican "high church," which retained the ceremonies and hierarchy so despised by the Puritans. The Parliamentary cause was supported by the middle class, the Puritans, and the radical Protestants. The kings forces roundly beat the Parliamentary forces for almost two years and the Parliamentary cause seemed all but lost.In 1642, however, Parliament reorganized its army under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, who was a landowner and, in religious matters, an Independent.